The main driver behind developing advanced condition monitoring (CM) systems for the wind energy industry is the delivery of improved asset management regarding the operation and maintenance of the gearbox and other wind turbine components and systems. Current gearbox CM systems mainly detect faults by identifying ferrous materials, water, and air within oil by changes in certain properties such as electrical fields. In order to detect oil degradation and identify particles, more advanced devices are required to allow a better maintenance regime to be established. Current technologies available specifically for this purpose include Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and ferrography. There are also several technologies that have not yet been or have been recently applied to CM problems. After reviewing the current state of the art, it is recommended that a combination of sensors would be used that analyze different characteristics of the oil. The information individually would not be highly accurate but combined it is fully expected that greater accuracy can be obtained. The technologies that are suitable in terms of cost, size, accuracy, and development are online ferrography, selective fluorescence spectroscopy, scattering measurements, FTIR, photoacoustic spectroscopy, and solid state viscometers.
Issue Section:
Technology Reviews
Keywords:
condition monitoring,
fluorescence,
Fourier transform spectra,
gears,
infrared spectra,
lubricating oils,
maintenance engineering,
photoacoustic spectra,
sensors,
wind power,
wind turbines,
condition monitoring,
gearbox,
wind turbine,
inline,
online,
oil analysis,
particulate analysis,
FITR spectroscopy,
photoacoustic spectroscopy,
sensors,
fiber optics
References
1.
European Wind Energy Association (EWEA)
, 2009, Wind Energy—The Facts
, Earthscan
, London
.2.
Tavner
, P. J.
, van Bussel
, G. J. W.
, and Spinato
, F.
, 2006, “Machine and Converter Reliabilities in Wind Turbines,”
Proceedings of the 3rd IET International Conference on Power Electronics
, Machines and Drives
, pp. 127
–130
.3.
McNiff
, B.
, 2007, “The Gearbox Reliability,”
Proceedings of the 2nd Sandia National Laboratories Wind Turbine Reliability Workshop
.4.
Ensslin
, C.
, Durstewitz
, M.
, Hahn
, B.
, Lange
, B.
, and Rohrig
, K.
, 2005, German Wind Energy Report
, ISET
, Kassel
.5.
Burton
, T.
, Sharpe
, D.
, Jenkins
, N.
, and Bossananyi
, E.
, 2003, Wind Energy Handbook
, John Wiley and Sons
, Chichester
.6.
Musial
, W.
, Butterfield
, S.
, and McNiff
, B.
, 2007, “Improving Wind Turbine Gearbox Reliability
,” European Wind Energy Conference, Conference Paper NREL/CP-500-41548
, Milan, Italy.
7.
National Grid, Round 3 Offshore Wind Farm Connection Study, http://www.thecrownestate.co.uk/round3_connection_study.pdfhttp://www.thecrownestate.co.uk/round3_connection_study.pdf.
8.
Crabtree
, C. J.
, 2010, “Survey of Commercially Available Condition Monitoring Systems for Wind Turbines,”
Durham University
. http://www.supergen-wind.org.uk/docs/Survey%20of%20commercially%20available%20CMS%20for%20WT.pdfhttp://www.supergen-wind.org.uk/docs/Survey%20of%20commercially%20available%20CMS%20for%20WT.pdf.9.
McMillan
, D.
, and Ault
, G. W.
, 2007, “Quantification of Condition Monitoring Benefit for Offshore Wind Turbines
,” Wind Eng.
, 31
(4
), pp. 267
–285
.10.
Zhan
, Y.
, and Makis
, V.
, 2006, “A Robust Diagnostic Model for Gearboxes Subject to Vibration Monitoring
,” J. Sound Vib.
, 290
(3–5
), pp. 928
–955
.11.
Gelman
, L.
, Zimroz
, R.
, Birkel
, J.
, Leigh-Firbank
, H.
, Simms
, D.
, Waterland
, B.
, and Whitehurst
, G.
, 2005, “Adaptive Vibration Condition Monitoring Technology for Local Tooth Damage in Gearboxes
,” Insight: Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit.
, 47
(8
), pp. 461
–464
.12.
Lekou
, D. J.
, Mouzakis
, F.
, Anastasopoulos
, A.
, and Kourousis
, D.
, 2009, “Emerging Techniques for Health Monitoring of Wind Turbine Gearboxes and Bearings,”
Proceedings EWEC, Scientific Track—Operation and Maintenance, Marseille, France.
13.
Toms
, L. A.
, 2008, Machinery Oil Analysis—Methods, Automation & Benefits
, 3rd ed., STLE
, Virginia Beach.
14.
Christensen
, J. J.
, Andersson
, C.
, and Gutt
, S.
, 2009, “Remote Condition Monitoring of Vestas Turbines,”
Technical Track—Operation & Maintenance, Proceedings EWEC
, Marseille
, France
.15.
Gear Foundation Course Notes, 2009, Version 2, David Brown Gear Academy.
16.
Neale
, M. J.
, 2001, Lubrication and Reliability Handbook
, J. W. Arrowsmith
, Bristol
.17.
Walsh
, D. P.
, 2005, “Oil Analysis 101
,” Orbit
, 25
(2
), pp. 50
–55
.18.
Li
, D.
, Sedman
, J.
, García-González
, D. L.
, and van de Voort
, F. R.
, 2009, “Automated Acid Content Determination in Lubricants by FTIR Spectroscopy as an Alternative to Acid Number Determination,”
J. ASTM Int.
, 6
(6
), Paper ID JAI 102110, http://www.thermal-lube.com/Publications/Automated%20Acid%20Content%20Determination%20in%20Lubricants%20by.pdfhttp://www.thermal-lube.com/Publications/Automated%20Acid%20Content%20Determination%20in%20Lubricants%20by.pdf.19.
Ebbing
, D. D.
, and Gammon
, S. D.
, 2009, General Chemistry
, 9th ed., Houghton Mifflin
, Boston
.20.
Gracia
, N.
, Thomas
, S.
, Bazin
, P.
, Duponchel
, L.
, Thibault-Starzyk
, F.
, and Lerasle
, O.
, 2009, “Combination of Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometric Factorization Tools to Study the Oxidation of Lubricating Base Oils
,” Catal. Today
, 155
(3–4
), pp. 255
–260
.21.
Seeton
, C. J.
, 2006, “Viscosity-Temperature Correlation for Liquids
,” Tribol. Lett.
, 22
(1
), pp. 67
–78
.22.
Viswanath
, D. S.
, and Natarajan
, G.
, 1989, Data Book on the Viscosity of Liquids
, Hemisphere
, New York
.23.
ASTM D2422–97, 2007, Standard Classification of Industrial Fluid Lubricants by Viscosity System, ASTM International.
24.
Rudnick
, L. R.
, 2009, Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
, CRC Press
, Boca Raton, Florida
.25.
Mortier
, R. M.
, and Orszulik
, S. T.
, 1997, Chemistry and Technology of Lubricants
, 2nd ed., Blackie Academic and Professional
, London
.26.
Pawlak
, Z.
, 2003, Tribochemistry of Lubricating Oils
, Elsevier
, Amsterdam
.27.
Aqua Star – Karl Fischer Titration Basics, 2010, EMD Chemicals, http://www.emdchemicals.comhttp://www.emdchemicals.com.
28.
Wieland
, G.
, and Fischer
, K.
, 1987, Water Determination by Karl-Fischer Titratio: Theory and Practice
, GIT
, Darmstadt
.29.
InTech Website, http://www.isa.orghttp://www.isa.org accessed on September 1, 2010.
30.
Dexsil—Diagnostic Test for Water in Oil, accessed from http://www.dexsil.com/uploads/docs/dtr_22_01.pdfhttp://www.dexsil.com/uploads/docs/dtr_22_01.pdf.
31.
Stuart
, B.
, 2004, Infrared Spectroscopy: Fundamentals and Applications
, John Wiley and Sons
, Chichester
.32.
Párkányi
, C.
, 1998, Theoretical Organic Chemistry
, Elsevier Science
, Amsterdam
.33.
Machinery Lubrication, accessed from http://www.machinerylubrication.comhttp://www.machinerylubrication.com on September 9, 2010.
34.
Poljanîsek
, I.
, and Krajnc
, M.
, 2005, “Characterization of Phenol-Formaldehyde Prepolymer Resins by In Line FT-IR Spectroscopy
,” Acta Chimica Slovenica
, 52
, pp. 238
–244
.35.
Toms
, L. A.
, 2008, Machinery Oil Analysis Methods, Automation and Benefits
, 3rd ed., STLE
, Virginia Beach
.36.
SpectroInc. QinetiQ North America, FluidScan Q1000, accessed from http://www.spectroinc.com/products-fluidscan.htmhttp://www.spectroinc.com/products-fluidscan.htm on August 25, 2010.
37.
Linden
, J. C.
, Tranter
, G. E.
, and Homes
, J. L.
, 2000, “Photoacoustic Spectroscopy, Theory,”
Encyclopaedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry
, 2nd ed., Academic
, London
.38.
Fodor
, P.
, and Ipolyi
, I.
, 2005, “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, Electrothermal
,” Encyclopedia of Analytical Science
, 2nd ed., pp. 174
–180
Elsevier Academic Press
, Amsterdam
.39.
Foster
, N. S.
, Amonette
, J. E.
, Autrey
, T.
, and Ho
, J. T.
, 2001, “Detection of Trace Levels of Water in Oil By Photoacoustic Spectroscopy
,” Sensors and Act.
, 77
, pp. 620
–624
.40.
MICEPAS: Miniaturised Cell Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy, 2009, accessed from http://www.micepas.basnet.by/http://www.micepas.basnet.by/ on August 10, 2010.
41.
Firebaugh
, S. L.
, Jensen
, K. F.
, and Schmidt
, M. A.
, 2001, “Miniaturization and Integration of Photoacoustic Detection with a Microfabricated Chemical Reactor System,”
J. Microelectromech. Syst.
, 10
(2
), pp. 232
–237
.42.
Stachowiak
, G. W.
, and Batchelor
, A. W.
, 2005, Engineering Tribology
, Elsevier
, Oxford.
43.
Viswanath
, D. S.
, 2007, Viscosity of Liquids: Theory, Estimation, Experiment and Data
, Springer
, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
44.
Kereme
, D.
, 2004, “Solid-state Viscometer for Oil Condition Monitoring,”
Practicing Oil Analysis
, November Edition, http://65.38.6.88/Magazine/Issue/Practicing%20Oil%20Analysis/11/2004http://65.38.6.88/Magazine/Issue/Practicing%20Oil%20Analysis/11/2004.45.
Lakowicz
, J. R.
, 1991, Topics in Fluorescence Spectroscopy, Principle
, Vol. 2
, Plenum
, New York
.46.
Sotelo
, F. F.
, Pantoja
, P. A.
, López-Gejo
, J.
, Le Roux
, G. A. C.
, Quina
, F. H.
, and Nascimento
, C. A. O.
, 2008, “Application of Fluorescence Spectroscopy for Spectral Discrimination of Crude Oil Samples,”
Brazilian J. Pet. Gas
, 2
(2
), pp. 63
–71
.47.
Liang
, T. K.
, Friedrich
, M.
, Lala
, D.
, and Ozanyan
, K. B.
, 2004, “Portable Fluorescence Sensor for On-line Monitoring of Lubricant Oils
,” Sensors, Proceedings of IEEE
, 1
(24–27
), pp. 8
–11
.48.
Patra
, D.
, and Misha
, A. K.
, 2002, “Total Synchronous Fluorescence Scan Spectra of Petroleum Products
,” Anal. Bioanal. Chem.
, 373
, pp. 304
–309
.49.
Smith
, S.
, 2008, ADS Workshop: Sensing a Defence Requirement, Sensor Activity in the Scottish Engineering Research Partnerships
, Proceedings of University of Edinburgh Sensor Workshop
.50.
Mignani
, A. G.
, 2009, “Optical Fiber Spectroscopy for Measuring Quality Indicators of Lubricant Oils
,” Meas. Sci. Technol.
, 20
, pp. 7
–13
.51.
Harrington
, J. A.
, 2004, Infrared Fibers and Their Applications
, SPIE
, Washington
.52.
Harrington
, J. A.
, 2007 Infrared Fiber Optics: OSA Handbook
, SPIE
, Washington
.53.
Olivieri
, A. C.
, 2008, “Analytical Advantages of Multivariate Data Processing
,” Anal. Chem.
, 80
, pp. 5713
–5720
.54.
Lajunen
, L. H. J.
, and Perämäki
, P.
, 2004, Spectrochemical Analysis by Atomic Absorption and Emission
, 2nd ed., The Royal Society of Chemistry
, Cambridge.
55.
Rao
, B. K. N.
, 1996, Handbook of Condition Monitoring
, 1st ed., Elsevier Advanced Technology
, Oxford
.56.
Ghosh
, S.
, Sarkar
, B.
, and Saha
, J.
, 2005, “Wear Characterization by Fractal Mathematics for Quality Improvement of Machine,”
J. Qual. Maint. Eng.
, 11
(4
), pp. 318
–332
.57.
Goldstein
, J.
, Newbury
, D.
, Joy
, D.
, Lyman
, C.
, Echlin
, P.
, Lifshin
, E.
, Sawyer
, L.
, and Michael
, J.
, 2003, Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis
, 3rd ed., Plenum
, New York
.58.
“Scanning Electron Microscope,”
Purdue University
, Department of Radiological and Environmental Management
, accessed from http://www.purdue.edu/rem/rs/sem.htmhttp://www.purdue.edu/rem/rs/sem.htm, on August 2, 2010.59.
“Scanning Electron Microscopes,”
Popular Mechanics (
2010), accessed from http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/gadgets/4218957http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/gadgets/4218957 on August 8, 2010.60.
Wu
, T. H.
, Mao
, J. H.
, Wang
, J. T.
, Wu
, J. Y.
, and Xie
, Y. B.
, 2009, “A New On-Line Visual Ferrograph,”
Tribol. Trans.
, 52
(5
), pp 623
–631
.61.
Myshkin
, N. K.
, Markova
, L. V.
, Semenyuk
, M. S.
, Kong
, H.
, Han
, H.-G.
, and Yoon
, E.-S.
, 2003, “Wear Monitoring Based on the Analysis of Lubricant Contamination by Optical Ferroanalyzer, Wear,”
14th International Conference on Wear of Materials
, 255
(7–12
), pp. 1270
–1275
.62.
Lord
, C. J.
, 1991, “Determination of Trace Metals in Crude Oil by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry with Micro-emulsion Sample Introduction
,” Anal. Chem.
, 63
, pp. 1594
–1599
.63.
Escobar
, M. P.
, Smith
, B. W.
, and Winefordner
, J. D.
, 1996, “Determination of Metallo-organic Species in Lubricating Oil by Electrothermal Vaporization Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
,” Anal. Chim. Acta
, 320
, pp. 11
–17
.64.
Aucelio
, R. Q.
, Souza
, R. M.
, Campos
, R. C.
, Miekeley
, N.
, and Silveira
, C.
, 2007, “The Determination of Trace Metals in Lubricating Oils by Atomic Spectrometry
,” Spectrochim. Acta, Part B
, 62
(9
), pp. 952
–961
.65.
Goncalves
, I. M.
, Murillo
, M.
, and González
, A. M.
, 1998, “Determination of Metals in Used Lubricating Oils by AAS using Emulsified Samples
,” Talanta
, 47
, pp. 1033
–1042
.66.
Brown
, R. J.
, 1983, “Determination of Trace Metals in Petroleum and Petroleum Products Using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer
,” Spectrochim. Acta, Part B
, 38
(1–2
), pp. 283
–289
.67.
Jansen
, E. B. M.
, Knipscheer
, J. H.
, and Nagtegaal
, M.
, 1992, “Rapid and Accurate Element Determination in Lubricating Oils Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry,”
J. Anal. At. Spectrom.
, 7
(2
), pp. 127
–130
.68.
Yaroshchyk
, P.
, Morrison
, R. J. S.
, Body
, D.
, and Chadwick
, B. L.
, 2005, “Quantitative Determination of Wear Metals in Engine Oils Using LIBS: The Use of Paper Substrates and a Comparison Between Single- and Double-pulse LIBS
,” Spectrochim. Acta, Part B
, 60
, pp. 1482
–1485
.69.
Patel
, B. M.
, and Winefordner
, J. D.
, “Graphite Rod Atomization and Atomic Fluorescence for Simultaneous Determination of Silver and Copper in Jet-engine Oils
,” Anal. Chim. Acta
, 64
, pp. 135
–138
.70.
Miller
, R. L.
, Fraser
, L. M.
, and Winefordner
, J. D.
, 1971, “Combination Flame Atomic Fluorescence Atomic Emission DC Spectrometer for Analysis of Trace Wear Metals in Jet Engine Oils
,” Appl. Spectrosc.
, 25
, pp. 477
–482
.71.
Iwai
, Y.
, Honda
, T.
, Miyajima
, T.
, Yoshinaga
, S.
, Higashi
, M.
, and Fuwa
, Y.
, 2010, “Quantitative Estimation of Wear Amounts by Real Time Measurement of Wear Debris in Lubricating Oil
,” Tribol. Int.
, 43
(1–2
), pp. 388
–394
.72.
Machinery Lubrication, accessed from http://www.machinerylubrication.comhttp://www.machinerylubrication.com on September 10, 2010.
73.
LaserNetFines website, accessed from http://www.spectroinc.com/products-lasernet-fines.htmhttp://www.spectroinc.com/products-lasernet-fines.htm on September 1, 2010.
74.
Sandler
, M. P.
, Coleman
, R. E.
, and Patton
, J. A.
, 2003, Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine
, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
, Philadelphia
.75.
Crabtree
, C. J.
, 2010, Survey of Commercially Available Condition Monitoring Systems for Wind Turbines
, Durham University
.76.
Yoon
, S.
, Lee
, S.
, Lee
, Y.
, and Oh
, J.
, 2006, “A Miniaturized Magnetic Induction Sensor Using Geomagnetism for Turn Count of Small-Caliber Ammunition
,” Sensors
, 6
, pp. 712
–726
.77.
Rajendran
, A.
, and Neelamegam
, P.
, 2004, “Microcontroller Based Dielectric Constant Measurement
,” Sensors & Transducers Magazine
, 41
(3
), pp. 181
–190
.78.
He
, L. M.
, Kear-Padilla
, L. L.
, Lieberman
, S. H.
, and Andrews
, J. M.
, 2003, “Rapid in Situ Determination of Total Oil Concentration in Water Using Ultraviolet Fluorescence and Light Scattering Coupled With Artificial Neural Networks
,” Anal. Chim. Acta
, 478
(2
), pp. 245
–258
.79.
Hair
, J. F.
, 2009, Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective
, 7th ed., Pearson Education
, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Copyright © 2011
by American Society of Mechanical Engineers
You do not currently have access to this content.
